Climate Change Factsheet

Background

The animal agriculture industry is responsible for 60% of global food system emissions. More specifically, animal agriculture emits between 14.5% and 20% of all human-caused GHGs​, around a third of anthropogenic methane,​ and more than half of nitrous oxide. Considering the urgency to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in light of climate change, 196 countries signed the Paris Agreements in 2015. This international treaty aims to “limit global warming well below 2, preferably 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels.”

A central mechanism in implementing such an overarching goal has been the enactment of “Nationally-Determined Contributions” (NDCs). NDCs are non-binding national plans listing climate actions undertaken by countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and achieve the global target set out in the Paris Agreement. Besides listing mitigating measures, NDCs also require that countries report on their emissions, tracking greenhouse gas emissions nationally and globally. The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 13 on climate action lists the adoption of an NDC as a climate action target.

Countries report on their NDCs every five years. As of September 2021, 186 countries and the European Union are in the process of submitting their 2020 NDCs to the United Nations, with most countries having already done so. Despite agriculture’s major environmental footprint, few countries identified agriculture as a key sector to reform to achieve the Paris Agreement targets. Moreover, few countries translate their NDC objectives into binding pieces of legislation. Notable examples of laws enforcing the Paris Agreement climate goals in the agricultural sector are the EU’s proposal for a Regulation on the Inclusion of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Land Use, Land Use Change, and Forestry (“LULUFC Regulation”), and the UK’s Climate Change Act, currently under revision, as well as New Zealand’s Zero Carbon Act. Another example is from Denmark, whereby the agricultural sector will be required to reduce emissions by 55% by 2030.

The absence of binding commitments for greenhouse gas emission reduction has prompted climate advocates to challenge governments in courts. Such was the case in The Netherlands, in the case, and in France, in the Affaire du Siècle case. In both these cases, courts ruled against the defendants, mandating governments take more effective action on climate change. The courts listed specific industries that the governments would need to regulate more strictly with respect to greenhouse gas emissions, including in agriculture.

Key Considerations

The recommendations below focus on reducing emissions caused by animal agriculture, as it is a high-emissions sector. The key considerations for better practices can be divided into: (1) the content contained in NDCs, and (2) the legislation required to meet NDC targets, as primary tools for efficient enforcement of the Paris Agreement’s objectives.

1. Better Practices for NDCs

1.1. Food Production Reduction Targets

Animal agriculture contributes 14.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, if meat demand continues to rise, the livestock sector could use over 80% of the carbon budget, making it virtually impossible to keep warming to below 1.5 °C. NDCs should therefore include reduction targets specific to animal agriculture, or targets specific to certain emissions that are prominent in animal agricultural, such as methane, of which beef production is a major contributor.

Emissions reduction targets in agriculture should also be quantified, as a percentage in reduction compared to a baseline year. A positive example is Japan’s NDCs, which includes a methane reduction target. Methane has received specific focus as it is 80 times more potent than carbon dioxide.

NDCs should further include a timeframe for peak livestock production. From a point of peak livestock production, total animal source food production would decrease year by year until reaching the NDC target.

1.2. Reduction Targets in Animal Source Food Consumption

Because countries can import meat from global producers, production levels of animal source foods are not necessarily in line with consumption levels of such products. However, the few NDCs that include reduction targets in the agricultural sector almost always emphasise production levels, and rarely include reduction targets of consumption levels of animal source foods. This situation results in production targets that are inconsistent with projected levels in consumption. In addition to setting reduction targets in the production of animal source foods, NDCs should thus set reduction goals around consumption. NDCs should contain measures that encourage a shift from high-meat diets, towards healthier, more sustainable plant-based diets.

2. Enforcement Mechanisms through Legislation

NDCs can only be achieved through concrete, measurable, and effective actions undertaken. Binding national laws and policies are essential if the NDCs are to be effective and the examples below are a non-exhaustive list of such policies.

2.1. Environmental Legislation

An important action is carbon-pricing measures, which are measures that assess the contribution to a product or an activity to climate change, and internalise the price of carbon into the final price of such a product or activity, usually by way of a tax. Measures like carbon taxes on high emitting foods, such as meat and dairy, could disincentivise the purchase of such products, all while the additional funding could fund transitional measures towards the production of more sustainable foods. Good examples of legislation that include carbon pricing measures in the agricultural sector are New Zealand’s Zero Carbon Act. New Zealand is the first country in the world to adopt an emission trading scheme for agriculture.

Public procurement rules are also effective levers in greenhouse gas reduction. Public procurement rules govern what public administrations buy to provide to citizens in places such as public school cafeterias, hospitals, or prisons. Public procurement rules are a potentially powerful tool to reduce the environmental footprint in the food sector due to the massive volumes of food that public purchase programs acquire. As such a large purchaser, government purchasing programs can affect the type of food the industry produces as well as their production methods. A number of administrations have adopted public procurement rules that reduce the serving of animal food sources to the constituents, and increase the serving of plant-based foods, for public health and environmental reasons. Other measures, such as a commitment to no deforestation, like the one adopted by the EU, also mitigate climate change. Positive examples regarding public procurement practices include the City of Berkeley and New York City in the US, which have both committed to significantly reducing the portion of animal source foods in the foods they acquire and serve to constituents.

2.2. Agricultural Legislation

There are many possible systemic actions to reduce emissions in the food sector, including the repurposing of land as a carbon sink by restoring native vegetation where grazing is not required or is unsuitable for horticulture or arable production. As an example, the E.U. aims to protect 30% of land and sea which will also meet biodiversity goals. Another effective measure is to diversify food production by replacing livestock with crops that simultaneously minimise environmental burdens and maximise public health benefits, such as pulses, grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, or seeds. A positive example is Indonesia’s NDC, which considers the use of low emission crops.

2.3. Taxation

Taxation is another lever that governments can activate to support the shift towards more plant-based diets. Positive examples include the Spanish 2012 tax reform, which increased the sales tax on meat and dairy products from 8 to 10%, and Spain also has a reduced 4% VAT rate for fruits and vegetables. Bill proposals in the Netherlands and Germany are also discussed to increase the sales tax on meat coupled with the creation of a fund to assist farmers in the transition towards more sustainable and humane methods of production. Finally, the Indonesian government announced it would enact a carbon tax that would also apply to agricultural goods as a way to achieve its objectives under its NDC.

References

References

M. Crippa, et al., Food Systems Are Responsible for a Third of Global Anthropogenic GHG Emissions, Nature Food (2021).

European Commission, EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030: Bringing Nature Back into our Lives (2020).

P.J. Gerber, H. Steinfeld, B. Henderson, A. Mottet, C. Opio, J. Dijkman, A. Falcucci, A. and G. Tempio, Tackling Climate Change through Livestock – A Global Assessment of Emissions and Mitigation Opportunities, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2013).

Helen Harwatt et al., Scientists Call for Renewed Paris Pledges to Transform Agriculture, The Lancet Planetary Health (2020).

Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, Emissions Impossible: How Big Meat and Dairy Are Heating Up the Planet (2018).

W. Willett, et al, Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT–Lancet Commission on Healthy Diets from Sustainable Food Systems, Lancet (2019).

Further Readings

Global Alliance for the Future of Food, 2020 NDCs Preview Report: Key Findings and Priority Actions (forthcoming, 2022).

Climate Watch NDC Content, Sectoral Mitigation Targets (Agriculture). 2021. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.

CE Delft, A Sustainability Charge on Meat (2020).

FAIRR, The Livestock Levy: Progress Report (2020).

Daina Bray, hift, Env. Law Review (2025).

P.J. Gerber, H. Steinfeld, B. Henderson, A. Mottet, C. Opio, J. Dijkman, A. Falcucci, A. and G. Tempio, Tackling Climate Change through Livestock – A Global Assessment of Emissions and Mitigation Opportunities, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2013).

Kari Harmschlag, Alicia Culver, Chloë Waterman, Becca Bartholomey, Meat of the Matter: A Municipal Guide to Climate-friendly Food Purchasing, Friends of the Earth and Responsible Purchasing Network (2017).